Effect of Field Hockey Activity-Based Training on Physical Performance and GPS-Derived Running Variables
Article information
Trans Abstract
PURPOSE
This study aimed to verify the effects of a field hockey activity-based high-intensity interval training program on hockey-related physical performance and global positioning system (GPS)-derived variables.
METHODS
A total of 20 players who were full-time professional players were divided into two groups: the general training (GT) and field hockey activity-based training (FHT) groups. Before and after the two groups underwent the 6-week training program, the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (YYIR) and the 20-m sprint dribbling and arrowhead dribbling tests were conducted, and GPS-derived running variables during practice matches were collected (including low-intensity running distance, high-intensity running distance, sprint distance, proportion of low- and high-intensity distances to total distance, and bouts of sprint). The rate of improvement was calculated using all collected data relative to baseline values.
RESULTS
After the 6-week training program, the FHT group showed a higher rate of improvement in covered distance (p<.001), VO2max in YYIR Level 1 (p<.001), sprint dribbling (p<.01), and arrowhead dribbling (p<.001) compared to the GT group. In addition, the FHT group showed a significant increase in the proportions of high-intensity running distance to the total distance (p<.001).
CONCLUSIONS
These results suggest that a 6-week field hockey activity-based high-intensity training program is an effective method for improving players’ dribbling skills and high-intensity movements.
INTRODUCTION
Field hockey is a team sport consisting of technical and tactical elements, in which the ball is handled using sticks [1,2]. To facilitate fast and dynamic gameplay, the game's management style has been continuously evolving [3]. The most significant change was introduced in 2015, when the game format, which initially consisted of two halves of 35 minutes each, was modified to four quarters of 15 minutes each. In this format, there are 2-minutes breaks between the 1 and 2 quarters, as well as between the 3 and 4 quarters. The halftime break between the 2 and 3 quarters lasts for 10 minutes [4]. Modifying the rules to allow unlimited player substitutions has resulted in increased participation of players in field hockey [5]. The current rules have gradually emphasized the importance of high-intensity levels of endurance that involve intermittent sprinting and maintaining power, as well as the ability to quickly recover within short rest periods during matches and between quarters [4].
Research analyzing field hockey performance using the Global Positioning System (GPS) has demonstrated that while players covered a total distance of 6.5 km before the rule changes in 2014 which decreased to 4.9 km after the changes, the proportion of high intensity running which represents high intensity movements in relation to the total distance covered has approximately doubled from 5.6% to 12% [1,5-7]. In intense matches such as international games, high intensity running and intermittent anaerobic movements, such as repeated sprint ability, are currently emphasized as crucial performance factors compared with the period before the rule changes [5,8].
In recent years, according to the increasing levels of competitive sports, the trend of high intensity interval training (HIIT) which is a good method to improve athletes’ aerobic performance over a short period of time has also been increasing [9,10]. Also, HIIT improves specific requirements, e.g., intermittent anaerobic movements, of team sports that are needed for victory in the competition [10]. Sarkar et al. [11] found that an 8-week HIIT program, including sprints followed by active recovery rest, resulted in improvements of 8% in maximum oxygen uptake, 11% in oxygen consumption at the anaerobic threshold, and 3% in maximum heart rate among male field hockey players and Elumalai et al. [12] demonstrated that a running-based HIIT program significantly enhanced sprinting performance compared to the general skill training among adolescent field hockey players. And Quezada-Muñoz et al. [13] showed that female field hockey players achieve a significant increase in jump performance (18.88%) and maximum oxygen uptake (7.20%), and a significant reduction in time in pushing speed (-25.39%) after 8-week HIIT program. However, traditional HIIT programs have limitations in that athletes may not sufficiently experience physiological loads that mimic actual game conditions [14], highlighting the need for alternative training approaches that reflect the specific demands of each sport. Most HIIT studies have focused on simple running-based protocols, and there is a notable lack of sport-specific HIIT research that incorporates technical and tactical components such as dribbling, directional changes, and shooting required in team sports like field hockey [15].
In particular, some previous studies have suggested that the effects of HIIT may be limited when applied to elite athletes. Arslan et al. [15] showed that the running-based HIIT program had meaningfully higher performance responses in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test (YYIR) for male soccer players, while the drill-based HIIT, i.e., small side game, involved the actual movement patterns in soccer had a meaningful greater improvement in agility, speed dribbling ability, and repeated sprint ability as well as YYIR 1, despite the training intensity and volume being the same. The study for female basketball players by Zeng et al. [16] demonstrated that a significant improvement in shooting ability was shown after only 4-week drill-based HIIT focused on the man-to-man defense, not HIIT with changes of direction. These results of previous studies were related to HIIT, unlike drill-based HITT, failure to incorporate components that require a high level of agility, such as rapid direction changes and acceleration, which are essential for dribbling speed and shooting accuracy [17]. This supported that team ball sports, such as field hockey, needed the drill-based HIIT developed to promote simultaneously the perceptual-motor activities of the players for specific tactical and/or technical issues and responds in the physiological and physical stimuli [18].
Field hockey requires the implementation of skills such as sensory dribbling, passing, and shooting, along with quick rotations, accelerations, decelerations, and high intensity endurance [17,19]. Training program for field hockey players is needed to involve multidirectional changes and specific movements in the competition [20]. However, previous studies investigating HIIT programs for field hockey have mainly focused on either running-based programs on a 400 m track or the use of body weight [11-13]. This study aims to verify the effect of HIIT program developed based on various movements along with field hockey skills on field hockey-related physical performance and GPS-derived running variables during practice matches.
METHODS
1. Study design
The current investigation was an experimental study of elite level female field hockey players for comparing a field hockey activity-based HIIT to a general field hockey training. Field hockey-related physical performance and GPS-derived running variables during practice matches were assessed before and after applying each 6-week training program for both groups, respectively. The improvement rates were calculated based on the level prior to the application of the training program, and a comparative analysis was conducted between groups. Both two training programs were conducted during off-season periods, and all tests were performed in similar ambient temperature and humidity (5-20°C, 30-70% humidity).
2. Participants
A total of 20 female field hockey players, including six forwards, six midfielders, and eight defenders, participated in this study. The players were divided into two groups (Table 1): the field hockey activity-based training (FHT, n=10) and the general training (GT, n=10) groups. All participants were full-time professional players and trained at least 5 days per week, two sessions per day, throughout the year. They had no significant history of pain 1 month prior to participation in this study, and during the 6-week training period, none of the subjects in the study were excluded due to injuries, sickness or drop-out. Power analysis was conducted using G*Power software (version 3.1.9.2, Universität Kiel, Kiel, Germany) based on an independent samples t-test with an assumed large effect size (Cohen's d=1.2), α=0.05, and power=0.80. The final sample of 20 participants (10 per group) was considered statistically sufficient [21]. All players were verbally informed of the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of this study, and written informed consent forms were signed. This study was approved by the University Research Ethics Committee (DUIRB-202208-15).
Participants’ characteristics (M±SD)
3. Measured variables
1) Aerobic endurance and recovery capacities
The Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (level 1, YYIR-1) was used to determine aerobic endurance and recovery capacities. The test was one of the most valid and reliable tests of intermittent ability in athletes [22,23], and it was consisted of 2×20 m running with turning and 2×5 m jogging running with 10 seconds for active recovery [24]. The starting running speed according to the test protocol was 10 km/h [24]. The 4×40 m running with turning at 10-13 km/h speed during 0-160 m interval (a 40 m (2×20 m) at 10, 11, 12, 13 km/h speed) were performed, and during 160-440 m interval 3×40 m and 4×40 m running with turning were performed at 13.5 and 14 km/h speed, respectively [24]. Then, the running speed was increased by 0.5 km/h after every 8×40 m [24]. Participants were instructed to follow the signal emitted by a transportable CD player (Philips Az1030, Eindhoven, Holland) and accordingly reach the designated start and finish lines. In the event of failure to reach the designated section, a warning was issued at the first instance, and at the second instance, the participant was disqualified. The covered distance was recorded and the indirect maximal oxygen uptake value was determined in ml/kg/min unit by formula of Bangsbo et al. [25]: VO2max (mL/kg/min)=YYIR-1 distance (m)×0.0084+36.4.
2) Sprint and agility with dribbling skills
The dribble test was applied in this study by modifying a test commonly used in soccer [26]. To measure sprinting ability and agility regarding dribbling skills, 20 m sprint dribbling and arrowhead dribbling tests were performed on a synthetic (water-based) field hockey pitch. The 20 m sprint dribbling test involved the player sprinting along a straight line for 20 m while controlling the hockey ball with their stick, maintaining maximum speed throughout [27].
The arrowhead dribbling test required the players to begin with both feet behind the starting point and run from the starting point to the middle cone (A) as quickly as possible while controlling the hockey ball with their stick, followed by moving to cone (B) on the right side, circling around cone (C) at the top, and then returning to the starting point.
All players were instructed to run along the same track with their stick, and their trials were considered a failure if the ball moved more than 50 cm from the player's stick or if the players failed to correctly maneuver through the course [28]. They were allowed four maximum attempts to achieve two successful trials in each test with rest periods of 30 seconds for light-active recovery and 2-3 minutes of standing (passive) recovery between trials [28]. players could be provided additional rest time if required [28]. Performance for each test was assessed by wireless, single-beam timing gates (SmartSpeed; Fusion Sport, Queensland, Australia) recording to the nearest 0.01 seconds. The players’ best trials (lowest time) for each test were analyzed [28].
3) GPS-derived running variables
10 Hz GPS units (OHCOACH Ultimate X4, Fitogether, Korea) integrated with a 100 Hz triaxial accelerometer and 100 Hz triaxial magnetometer were used to quantify the players’ running variables during practice matches. This GPS unit certified by the Fédération International de Football Association was placed between the players’ scapulae in a tight vest approximately 15 minutes before the warm-up period. GPS data were collected from one practice match before and one practice match after the 6-week intervention. The data for the two practice matches were downloaded to a computer using a program (OHCOACH Data Manager, Fitogether, Korea) and summarized using Microsoft Excel (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA). The running variables measured using GPS units were as follows: low-intensity running distance (LID; 0-15 km·h-1), high-intensity running distance (HID; 15-23 km·h-1), sprint distance (SD; above 23 km·h-1), sprint bouts (above 23 km·h-1), acceleration bouts (above 2 m·s-2), and deceleration (below −2 m·s-2). The proportions of low intensity running distance to total distance (PLID) and proportions of high intensity running distance to total distance (PHID) were calculated by dividing them by the total distance.
4. Training program
Two training programs were designed based on HIIT (90-95% of each players’ maximum heart rate) for both GT and FHT groups and conducted over 6-week (3 sessions per week) during the off-season periods (Table 2). Each training session after 10 minutes warm-up with jogging and dynamic stretching lasted 40 minutes including 30 minutes of exercise and 10 minutes of rest. Then, both groups continued their regular training programs in a game-like format, including hockey-related activities such as dribbling, passing, and shooting. Each training session was conducted at the same time of the day (from 10 to 11 a.m.). To ensure that HIIT was performed at 90-95% of HRmax, both two groups used a heart rate monitor (Polar Verity Sense; Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland) on the non-dominant upper limb via an chest strap [29], and players’ heart rates were monitored in real time through the program (Polar Team Pro System; Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland).
Training content of the 6-week interventions performed by the GT and FHT
The training program for FHT group was designed to incorporate various combinations of hockey-specific performance and skills. According to previous studies, female hockey players should be able to perform 10-20 sprints per game [30], and they should also be able to perform repeated accelerations, decelerations, and directional changes [31,32] (Appendixs 1 and 2). In addition, the ability to perform skills such as passing, dribbling, control, and shooting is reported to be a crucial factor in creating the most important opportunities, leading to team victory in competitions [33,34]. Furthermore, to avoid dangerous situations such as penalty corners, players should be able to perform tackle maneuvers with precision [35]. Based on the necessary performance required during a hockey game, the FHT program was divided into 2 parts (1-3 weeks and 4-6 weeks) consisting of 5 movements respectively. Part 1 focused on passing, dribbling, tackling, and sprinting, and part 2 emphasized on directional change tackles, sprint and directional change, and sprinting dribble. During all parts of FHT program performed 3 sets of each movement and repeated 10 times in 1 set. They took a rest for half of exercise duration between repetitions and sets [11,36-38].
The program for GT consisted of four exercises (1-3 weeks) on the field and two exercises that were conducted on a 400 m track (4-6 weeks) specifically designed for hockey. During the first 3-week, the GT performed three sets of each exercise and rested for half of the exercise duration between sets and exercises. From the fourth week onward, they performed three sets of 400 m and 200 m sprints with ten repetitions in each set. They also rested for half of the exercise duration between repetitions and sets.
5. Statistical analysis
Data of all variables measured in this study were analyzed using the WIN/SPSS program (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) version 25.0 and presented as mean and standard deviation. All data were first checked for normality using the Shapiro-Wilk model, and all satisfied the normal distribution. An independent t-test was conducted to compare the improvement rates between the groups. The effect size (ES) was calculated with Cohen's d [39], considering a small (0.20-0.49), moderate (0.50-0.79), or strong effect (>0.80). The significance level for all tests was set at α=0.05.
RESULTS
1. Comparison of improvement rates in physical performance variables
The difference in improvement rates of physical performance between groups after the application of each training program was shown in Table 3. The covered distance (GT group: 13.93%, FHT group: 29.10%, t=-4.070, p <.001, d=1.82) and VO2max in YYIR-1 (GT group: 2.01%, 4.01%, t=-4.046, p <.001, d=1.80) for the FHT group demonstrated greater improvement compared to the GT group. Additionally, in sprint dribbling (GT group: −3.54%, FHT group: −6.08%, t=3.183, p <.01, d=1.42) and agility dribbling (GT group: −2.55%, FHT group: −4.70%, t=8.034, p <.001, d=3.62), the FHT group showed greater improvement compared to the GT group.
Differences in the rate of improvement in hockey-related fitness between GT and FHT after each 6-week training program (M±SD)
2. Comparison of improvement rates in GPS-derived variables
Table 4 showed the differences in improvement rates of GPS-derived running variables during practice matches between the groups, depending on the application of the training program. The FHT group experienced a significant decrease in PLID (GT group: −2.99%, FHT group: −4.85%, t=2.685, p <.05, d=1.20) compared to the GT group, as well as a significant increase in PHID (GT group: 19.90%, FHT group: 42.04%, t=-3.831, p <.001, d=1.71).
Differences in the rate of improvement in GPS variables between GT and FHT after each 6-week training program (M±SD)
DISCUSSION
Field hockey requires players to maintain good performance until the end of the game, necessitating both aerobic and anaerobic abilities, as well as delicate stickwork skills [40,41]. In this study, the HIIT-based FHT group showed the improvement rate (29% and 4%, respectively) over GT group (13% and 2%, respectively) in the distance and VO2max of the YYIR-1, which evaluated aerobic and anaerobic abilities. This result can be attributed to the FHT program that primarily consists of repeated short-distance sprints, which differs from the GT program. According to a study by Fernandez-Fernandez et al. [42], repeated sprint training improves not only anaerobic but also aerobic abilities. Similarly, in a study conducted by Aschendorf et al. [36], the group that underwent HIIT-based basketball-specific training showed a 26.5% improvement of YYIR-1, while the group that underwent general team training showed a −6.8% change. The implementation of a HIIT-based program mobilizes a broader muscle fiber recruitment in athletes, inducing a large adaptive response that helps strengthen the cardiovascular system [43,44]. Improvements in Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-Gamma Co-activator-1α, which plays a key role in biochemical changes such as muscle oxidation, increased buffering capacity, and mitochondrial transcription, are known to improve aerobic and anaerobic abilities [45,46].
Dupont et al. [47] applied a 10-week repeated sprint training to male soccer players and reported a 3.5% reduction in 40 m sprint time along with improvements in aerobic running ability. In addition, a study by Jakeman et al. [48] found significant improvements in repeated sprint ability and field hockey performance indicators after 4 weeks of uphill-based HIIT training twice a week. After a total of eight sessions, sprint performance improved by 12-15%, demonstrating that short-term interventions can produce meaningful outcomes. These findings suggest that running-centered interval training programs, such as the GT program in this study, can contribute to enhancing basic physical fitness and repeated sprint ability in athletes. However, most running-based HIIT programs lack technical components or sport-specific movements required in actual team sports, limiting their impact on game performance [48]. In contrast, the Field Hockey activity-based Training (FHT) program developed in this study incorporated stick dribbling, directional changes, and 1 vs. 1 situations unique to field hockey. This design allowed players to train at high intensity in an environment that closely resembles the flow of a real match.
In this study, both groups showed reduced times in factors such as the 20 m sprint dribble and arrowhead agility dribble, which are commonly used to evaluate players’ technical performance. However, there was a significant difference between the GT and FHT groups. The likely rea-son for this result is that the 1 vs. 1 shooting included in the FHT program facilitated high-intensity movement and multidirectional transitions, similar to those in small-sided games. It also allowed for the execution of delicate stickwork, such as ball control and sprint dribbling, resulting in better outcomes. In the study conducted by Aschendorf et al. [36], the results of the group that underwent HIIT-based basketball-specific training were more positive in the 20 m dribble test compared with the group that underwent HIIT conducted by the existing team. Similarly, a study by Gabbett [49] confirmed that HIIT-based rugby-specific training led to greater improvements in sprint performance compared to the traditional conditioning program (i.e., high intensity running and sprinting without technical elements) for rugby league players. Furthermore, according to Sanchez-Sanchez et al. [20] including change of direction in HIIT training has been proven to be an effective strategy for improving the performance of young female basketball players. Also, the study by Hammami et al. [50] found greater improvements in agility tests performed with the ball compared with a specific direction change training program after the players received HIIT-based small side game training for 6-week. Improvements in short sprints and agility can be attributed to the continuous execution of several specific power-related movements, such as stopping, accelerating, and decelerating, which occur in situations like 1 vs. 1 [49]. Regarding sport specificity, the advantages of the HIIT-based sport-specific program are as follows: it enhances the performance ability of elite athletes in competition-related exercises [13,15,51], increases focus and motivation [35], and allows for more time to be dedicated to technical and tactical training [52,53].
Field hockey, a high-intensity intermittent team sport, emphasizes the ability to perform repeated sprints that involve acceleration and deceleration, with high intensity running being significant factors for maintaining the dynamic and fast flow of the game [54,55]. It has been reported that the probability of winning a match increase as the distance of low-intensity running decreases and the distance of high-intensity running increases [30,56,57]. Female field hockey players participating in international tournaments run an average of approximately 589 m in HID per game, which accounts for about 12% of the total distance covered [4,8]. In this study, both groups exhibited a pattern of decrease and increase in the ratio of low-intensity to high-intensity movement distances following the implementation of the training program. However, there was a significant difference between GT and FHT groups. Compared to before the 6-week training, the PLID decreased after the application (GT group: −2.99%, FHT group: −4.85%). Regarding the change in PHID, it was confirmed that the FHT group had a greater increase in HID during the game compared to the GT group, with changes measured after the application (GT group: 19.90%, FHT group: 42.04%). This is because, unlike GT program, the FHT program incorporated stickwork— a characteristic unique to field hockey— in most of its sessions. In team sports like field hockey, it is argued that the probability of winning a game and ball possession are closely related to HID [58]. This suggests that a decrease in the distance of low-intensity running and an increase in the HID result in more opportunities for offense, allowing for efficient and strategic game management. It's emphasized that as the level increases in the YYIR 1 test, athletes in high-intensity intermittent team sports have a strong correlation with high-intensity running distance performance during a game [59,60]. The volume and intensity of training are important for female athletes in intermittent team sports because they appear to correlate with the ability to perform high-intensity running during a game [60]. According to research similar to the present study by Aschendort et al. [36], technical aspects such as dribbling, passing, and shooting in basketball players showed greater improvement following a basketball-specific training program based on HIIT compared to the group that received traditional HIIT. Training that involves various movements based on the sports game contributes to improved performance [13]. A training program incorporating sports-specific techniques not only enhances players’ game-related fitness but also improves their tactical understanding of the game. It is known to enhance decision-making and natural teamwork among athletes, thereby improving their performance [53,61,62]. Therefore, the implementation of a training program that incorporates stickwork— a characteristic of field hockey based on various movements performed in a game— is expected to positively affect not only the athletes’ physical fitness but also their technical performance.
As mentioned above, there is a lack of drill-based HIIT programs for field hockey players. Therefore, this study developed a HIIT program based on various movements and field hockey skills, and the effective-ness of this program was observed in the physical fitness and performance required for the game. However, a limitation of this study was that it could not equally correlate the differences in game-related performance among the participants. Given these limitations, future research that recruits teams with similar game-related performances (physical fitness, skills, etc.) and applies the FHT program to examine its impact on specific performances closely related to game performance would be beneficial for more objective and insightful research.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the main findings of this study demonstrate that field hockey activity-based high-intensity interval training (FHT) can effectively enhance sprinting and agility with dribbling among elite field hockey players, as well as improve aerobic endurance and recovery capacities. Additionally, it can increase the proportion of high intensity running distance to total distance during matches. Therefore, considering the nature of the sport and training requirements, this FHT program is recommended as a beneficial method for improving field hockey dribbling skills and high-intensity movements.
Notes
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank all the participating athletes and coaches for their contribution to the study.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: M Choi, H Choi, J Chung; Data curation: M Choi, K Lee; Formal analysis: M Choi, H Choi; Funding acquisition: Not applicable; Methodology: M Choi, H Choi; Project administration: M Choi, H Choi; Visualization: M Choi, H Choi; Writing - original draft: M Choi, H Choi; Writing - review & editing: M Choi, H Choi.
